The Role of Cultural Brokers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Role of Cultural Brokers - Research Paper Example The investigator interviewed nurses, doctors, community members, and pharmacy personnel in one of the public healthcare facilities and a neighboring community. Analysis of the results indicated that it is vital to incorporate healthcare brokers into the healthcare systems. Healthcare negotiators review interviews that occurred between clients and healthcare providers. They also analyze the clinical reports and case conferences to infer meaning and refer clients accordingly. Additionally, brokers in the healthcare system mediate the varied viewpoints held by the clients and healthcare providers. Further, they help to bring about the clients’ cultural experiences, values, and expectations. In understanding the impacts of the cultural aspect, many organizations and healthcare personnel can offer the best services to their esteemed clients. Despite the challenges facing the cultural brokers, it is of utmost importance to find the means to involve cultural brokers in the delivery o f the healthcare services. It is conclusively paramount to have the healthcare cultural brokers to ensure achievement of goals and missions of the healthcare systems. Cultural brokering refers to the process through which an individual act as an advocate or a link between persons of divergent cultural backgrounds. An active agent displays the acquaintance, sensitivity, and skills of being aware of the cultural influences that affect people’s lives. Further, the broker has the appropriate training to act within the profession as an informed go-between (Major & Gooden, 2012). Understanding the concept of cultural brokerage entails a critical look at culture, co-culture, mediation of culture, health culture, and culture broker. For instance, the role of a cultural broker links with aims of cultural competence.  Ã‚  

Are Liberty and Security Mutually Exclusive, or Mutually Supportive Essay

Are Liberty and Security Mutually Exclusive, or Mutually Supportive - Essay Example A careful analysis of theory and practice of security, however, indicates that security is not opposed to liberty, and in fact augments it when used judiciously, but that there is a fine tipping point after which security begins to impinge on liberty rather than support it. The question as to the role and purpose of the government has been a central question to political philosophers for centuries now. These philosophers often work under to distinct precepts that were originally envisioned by Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke: that people were born free in their â€Å"state of nature† (Hobbes 32), but that they are universally found to be under some sort of governance, which curtails their freedom. The fundamental question is then, why do people give up their freedoms to another power? An explanation, the social contract, was developed by John Locke – he states that absolute liberty is not in fact a good thing, because it would mean liberty to steal from, and otherwise harm one another, so people give up their own liberty for security (Dunn 75). ... e of the legitimate rolls of government was the regulation of morality: it was supposed that this was a form of security, and that without a patrician government to look after its population people would devolve into immoral behavior, and thus would harm themselves and the state. John Stuart Mill countered this thinking in his seminal On Liberty, in which he argued that it was not a legitimate role of government to regulate morality (Mill 374). This shifted thinking permanently on the role of government in the preservation of liberty. Both of these trains of thought are in fact correct. It cannot be denied that government’s granting and increasing security does, to a particular point, improve liberty: a well policed street will ensure that people have the ability to walk down it unmolested, and a well regulated market ensures the liberty of everyone playing by the same economic rules. Yet it also cannot be denied that governments sometimes go too far in curtailing liberty at t he cost of security, by, for instance, monitoring people without their knowledge, or policing ideology (Rovine 42). So where does the tipping point occur? Government’s enacting of security begins to unduly curtail liberty when actions taken in the name of security modify people’s behavior more than the threat or fear of a lack of security would do. For instance, locking everyone in a solitary cell would certainly lower the murder rate, but this would modify people’s behavior much more than the fear of murder does. A well regulated police force, on the other hand, increases liberty by countering the behavior modification that fear of murder by a completely un-policed society would have. Security and liberty are often seen as each other’s antithesis, and for good reason. Governments have

Blue Velvet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Blue Velvet - Essay Example The premise of the film being a horror fits into the niche of film noir. Acceding to Dancynger film noir "highlights the world of the nightmare, it tends to rely less on movement and pace.' (Technique of film and Video Editing (p 175) I chose to use the word intellectual as part of the theme because film noir has an abstract side to it which encompasses my intellectual basis regarding the film. and considering the theme to be one of intellectual horror. The foundation of the movie revolves around the dark side of human nature, which combines both horror and intellect. To be more specific regarding the film and its theme if the theme is an intellectual horror which theme certainly includes the dark side of human nature and that is the main reason I have identified the theme of Blue Velvet to be an intellectual horror. The thematic montage is one of angst and the dark side of human nature that it stems from. The recurring image of the home is Lynch's way of introducing the theme each t ime the image of the home appears. Many objects are discovered out of sequence during the film. Here is a list of images Used by Lynch to emphasize the theme.

New York City Zoning Regulations Vs The Death and Life of American Assignment

New York City Zoning Regulations Vs The Death and Life of American Great Cities - Assignment Example The New York City Zoning Regulations provides rules and guidelines for shaping the city. If compared to architecture and planning, zoning has a short history in it being a means of organizing how land is used. Zoning puts into place the use and size of buildings, the location of the buildings and to a greater extent the diverse neighborhoods’ density of the city. In line with the city’s tax, ability to budget and property condemnation, zoning is an important tool for undertaking planning policy. New York City is known to be a pioneer regarding zoning from the time the first nation’s comprehensive zoning was enacted in 1916. Considering the New York City zoning regulations, we can gauge that, some of these regulations reflect what Jane Jacobs is talking about in her book while some regulations do not reflect her ideas as we are going to discuss them. In her book, Jacobs praised density and concentration as opposed to dispersal and decentralization. Jacobs announces that housing activist Catherine Bauer has derived a perfect term meant for attacking regional planners for example Lewis Mumford. Decentrists proposed decentralizing big cities like New York. They wanted to squeeze them, disorient their enterprises, and dislocate their populations into smaller and separated cities. Decentrists felt that urban streets are bad environment for humans; hence, they recommended building houses away from the street. However, they suggested building houses inward in the direction of sheltered greens. These ideas took over mainstream thinking until Jacobs shoved them away in her book. Jacobs understood the meaning that density gives critical mass. Density means good services, good stores, restaurants and cafes. It also means safety in thatthere is life in the street and round the clock activity. NYC zoning regulations reflect this idea by allowing centralization in its policy. This has greatly improved safety in the city nowadays not only because of security by the police department in fighting crime strategically but because there are always people in the streets whether its day time or night time. This idea is one of Jacob’s brilliant contributions. As she writes, â€Å"There must be sufficiently dense concentration of people, for whateve4r purposes they may be there. This includes dense concentration in the case of people who are there because of residence†. Within this concept that is critic lays several others as we continue. Greenwich Villag e was another of Jacob’s important urban lab, the denser but mainly low-rise, working-class neighborhood. As a small-town girl, she took her lessons with respect to proper urban behavior as shown by her neighbors. Like Bernie Jaffe, who owned the candy store and who guides small children traversing the street; Joe Cornacchia, who owned corner deli and kept her keys in case of visitors and emergencies; the locksmith Mr. Lacey, the one who bawled the son of Jacob for running into traffic then he reported him to his dad. Jacobs respected and celebrated working class households plus their conservative, old-world although socially attentive morals. Ethnic neighborhoods emptied out into the suburbs, either voluntarily or coercively under urban renewal. However, Jacobs for saw tragedy in their departure, she admired their territoriality and their commerce enterprises which were frequently held in contempt to be too parochial and insignificant by intellectuals and the government offi cials. Divisively

In our own Interest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

In our own Interest - Essay Example During the case of Somalia, 19 Americans died while attempting to restore peace (Thompson et al 4). Following the Mogadishu case, President Clinton’s intervention was restricted by the administration, despite the fact that the recommendations offered went against their humanistic conscience. The recommendation entailed the evacuation of all the American people at Rwanda, but not rescuing any Rwandan’s despite the fact that they perfectly understood the crisis at Rwanda. This paper reviews the response of President Clinton and his staff during the Rwanda Genocide, towards demonstrating the evils that emanate from obedience and the influence of authority on human behavior. Discussion Following the orders from the American administration, during and after the start of the Rwandan crisis, the administration’s advisors and the planning teams of the US – through president Clinton and his staffs communicated a number of excuses – for failing to act in resp onse to the genocide (Thompson, et al. 2; Carroll). The reasons given by President Clinton and his staffs included that the true magnitude and the scale of the killings taking place at Rwanda was not known. They also claimed that the rate of killings did not warrant the response of the US government (Thompson, et al. 3). However, considering that the massacre continued for a period of three months, it was clear that the inaction of President Clinton and his administration was not caused by the lack of proper information. Further, it became clear that the US was aware that the plans of the attack were known, because it was reported to the US, but nothing was done about the situation. The inaction of the US was also, not because it did not have enough resources, using which to respond to the situation. The reasons behind the failure of the inaction were primarily policy issues (DIA). The President and his staffs’ inaction are evident from the fact that they were well aware of t he case, eve before it happened. This was evident from the fact that, on 11th of January 1994 General Dellaire informed the UN of planned assassinations of Tutsi officials (Carroll). His subsequent appeals for reinforcement were not served. Further, after the start of the killings, memoranda about killings were sent to the Secretary of Defense’s office, and leading news papers like the Washington post and the New York Times reported the killings taking place (DIA). The policy recommendations that went against the conscience of President Clinton and his staffs included those from the administration that military force was not to be employed, following the experience that the US government had gained from the 3rd of October 1993 raid at Mogadishu, which ended with the killing of 19 Americans (Samantha 378). Other policy recommendations advanced by the US administration included that the interests of the US had to be protected, the administration did not have any allocation to a ddress the situation and that it lacked allied and public support (Samantha 378). These administrative policy recommendations tied the president and his staff’s ability to decide in favor of the crisis at Rwanda. This case shows the effects of their obedience; because the case culminated in the killing of more than 500,000 people (O'Toole; Stanley). The president and h

Immanuel Kant - Metaphysics of Morals Essay Example for Free

Immanuel Kant Metaphysics of Morals Essay In his publication, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, Immanuel Kant supplies his readers with a thesis that claims morality can be derived from the principle of the categorical imperative. The strongest argument to support his thesis is the difference between actions in accordance with duty and actions in accordance from duty. To setup his thesis, Kant first draws a distinction between empirical and a priori concepts. Empirical concepts are ideas we reach from our experiences in the world. On the other hand and in contrast, a priori concepts are ideas we reach as an end point of reasoning prior to or apart from any experience of how things occur in the world. Kant then claims that moral actions are supposed done for the reason of morality alone. This train of thought leads to the conclusion that an understanding of morality must be based on a priori concepts of reason. Truly moral ideas are then universally valid if and only if they are based on a priori concepts. From this idea of a priori concepts, Kant begins his thesis with the notion that the only thing in the world that is a qualified good is the good will, even if its efforts bring about a not necessarily good result. A good will is good because of the willing that is involved. Two main implications arise with this idea of the good will. The first implication is moral actions cannot have impure motivations. There are many impure motivations but Kant tends to focus mainly on the motives of the pursuit of happiness and self-preservation. Second, moral actions cannot be based on the speculations of the probable results. This action is not good in itself but good because it brought about a more desirable outcome. Thus, Kant arrives at the conclusion that for an action to be considered to have genuine moral worth its motive must be that of dutifulness to moral law. In Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant lays out three propositions about duty. The first is the will is a morally good action if it is done in accordance from duty, as opposed to an action done in accordance with duty. The second proposition is that actions are judged by the maxim or principle that was the motivation behind the action. If someone undertakes an action with the only motivation being that of a sense of duty, they are following a valid a priori action. On the other hand if they decide to undertake an action in order to bring about a desired result, then their motivation is one that is beyond mere duty. Kants third proposition then explains that is not the respect for the power of the law but rather it is the moral motivation of an individual who acknowledges that the law is an imperative of reason that trumps our other interests. The will, as Kant describes, is of practical reason. A rational being is an individual who has the capacity to execute their behavior by the conceptions of laws. This discipline of action is also known as the will. Our judgment that advises us on our action is known as an imperative or a command to act on a certain motive. An imperative can be either hypothetical or categorical. In the hypothetical imperative one acknowledges an action as right or necessary if it is a manner in which to obtain or achieve a certain goal. As such you would act on an action if a previous circumstance has taken place. These types of actions come from our previous experiences and counsel us to a way in which our desires can be achieved. Thus, an action cannot be held universally valid at all times if its goal is to acquire some objective of desire under a certain set of conditions. If the goal is ultimately happiness, we are unable to set any universally hypothetical imperatives for happiness. This is because the definition of happiness differs from person to person. One mans happiness can very well be another mans misery. As Kant explains, a binding moral law then cannot be equivalent or parallel to a hypothetical imperative. Pure reason comes from the ability to consider neither a motivating condition accompanying another nor its intended results. With that, we then need to find a principle with universal validity or a principle that is valid no matter what issue is being considered. A priori principles of reason are the only principles that fit this standard on which a judgment or decision may be based. Hence, Immanuel Kant formulates that a moral imperative is one that is an unconditional or categorical imperative. A categorical imperative is our moral consciousness to do our duty because we ought to do our duty instead of pursuing our own desires attached to the duty. Such an imperative is driven by pure reason. Because we exclude our desires or maxims, we need only to focus on the form of our imperative. The form needs to be universally applicable or valid for all rational beings to follow. Thus, Kant gives us only one categorical imperative and it is Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law (Kant pg. 38). This universal law of morality states that we should act in such a way that we could will the maxim of our action to become universally applicable. This should be used as the criterion to determine whether or not a maxim is morally valid. Before we are able to apply a maxim to this categorical imperative, it is required that the maxim first, be fit to be a law of nature and second, is based on a notion that all actions have ends. The second pertains to the idea that men and women are ends in themselves. No maxim that does not impose or imply respect as a necessary accompaniment for men and women can be a moral law valid for everyone. Third, we must see every rational being as able to make universal laws. Last, the maxim requires the moral agent to act as a lawgiving member of all persons. From these points, two important ideas arise. The ideas deal with the autonomy of the will and dignity of the individual. Each person is essentially their own lawmaker, obeying the laws that they give themselves as a rational being. A person is not bound to a law by fear or hope of some reward, but freely bound to it by their lawgiving ability. This moral will is autonomous. Autonomy, which means self-law, is the only way Kant believes an individual to achieve the ultimate freedom. If an individual obeys laws from some other lawgiver, such as God and government, because of fear of punishment or hope of reward, he or she is not truly free. I feel the strongest objection to this thesis is Kant does not take enough consideration to human beings natural emotions. I believe his thesis weighs to heavily on mere reason alone without any emphasis on the emotional component of our morality. Kants perception that morality is a chore neglects the fact that by performing actions from duty individuals can obtain a somewhat subtle level of personal gratification from partaking in such acts that are not generally enjoyable to execute. I am not thoroughly convinced that if you are able to gain some happiness and reward from an action that is not generally alluring. The strengths of my personal view rely on the possibility of achieving a feeling of reward by completing an obligation. I feel there is an importance of doing something with a smile on your face. If you are unhappy to perform a moral action it will to reveal outwardly or make apparent that your heart is elsewhere, thus, tainting the action. However, if you perform these tasks seeking a somewhat level of enjoyment others will notice that you truly care about what it is you are doing and perceive the action to be a notable one. The weakness is obviously that you will be more probable to engage and look to engage in more actions that will give you this appeal and instant gratification. This is not an ideal situation because placing a slight neglect to a duty or obligation that you might not find appeal in defeats the purpose of completing all of the obligations set for us to go through with. Kants thesis has strength in the fact that the universal law seems closely related to the golden rule, which is do on to others as you would have others do on to you. With a statement as such it is awfully arduous to not perform a moral action. The weakness still lies in the fact Kant takes little to no consideration to humans natural emotions and feelings. Leading a moral life does not have to be a melancholy life, one in which you are bound to an endless amount of duties that you can seek no joy in. Whether or not Kant intended to make morality seem like torture, it appears it comes off in this manner. Kants overall view of morality appears near flawless. If there was a manner in which he could have incorporated a leeway for some emotions, I feel his thesis is in actuality how each individual should lead his or her life. .

Many corporations are over managed and underled

Many corporations are over managed and underled Differentiate between management and leadership in the context of the statement many corporations are over-managed and under-led. (15) Management and leadership are two notions that are often used interchangeably. However, it describes two different concepts. Here, we shall first define management and leadership. Second, we will focus on the leadership styles and how they affect the managerial task. Jones and George (2009:5) define management as planning, organizing, leading and controlling of human and other resources to achieve organizational goals efficiently and effectively. According to Saha (2006:2) management is the conscious effort to form the environment by effectively utilizing the available resources. She further states that management is the skill of efficiently organizing the present scenario from a past viewpoint in order to shape the future. Leadership has been defined in many different ways, but most definitions share the assumption that it involves the process of influence that is concern with facilitating the performance of a shared task. Jones et al. (2009:494) defines leadership as the process by which a person exerts influence over people and inspire, motivates and directs their activities to help achieve group or organizational goals. Saha (2006:289) in her definition believes leadership is getting people to do things they never thought of doing, do not believe are possible or that they do not want to do. The definitions available, all describe management and leadership a two different ways of organizing people. Ehlers and Lazenby (2007: 220) believe that leadership and management complement each other, and expertise in both is necessary for successful strategy implementation and survival. A company that is well-led will not do well without effective management; similarly a company that is well-managed will also not do well without effective leadership. Managing organizations is therefore a complex activity. Managers must possess a wide range of skills, knowledge and abilities to enable them to make the right decision even in difficult situations. Leadership is one of the assets a successful manager must possess. However, a manager cannot just be a leader; he also needs authority to be effective. Following is Kotters distinction between Management and leadership as presented in the Regent Business School Study Guide (2007: 136). Management Leadership Direction Planning and budgeting Keeping eye on bottom line Creating vision and strategy Keeping eye on horizon Alignment Organizing and staffing Directing and controlling Creating boundaries Creating shared culture and values Helping other grow Reducing boundaries Relationships Focusing on objects producing/selling goods and services Based on position power Acting as boss Focusing on people inspiring and motivating followers. Based on personal power Acting as coach, facilitator, servant Personal Qualities Emotional distance Expert mind Talking Conformity Insight into organization Emotional connections (heart) Open mind (Mindfulness) Listening (communication) Nonconformity (Courage) Insight to self (Character) Outcomes Maintains stability, creates culture and efficiency Creates change and a culture of integrity Table1: Management vs Leadership (Business Regent School Guide., 2007: 137) According to Gaddini (2010: 1-2) [online] many corporations are over-managed and under-led. If they are to have a sustainable future, they must develop the capacity of individuals across the organization to exercise leadership more effectively. In recent years, organizations committed a lot of financial resources towards enhancing information technology, improved systems and innovations. Leaders need to be much more than information or task managers. They need to engage the organization by involving people at every level. Over managing an organization has to do with the management style a manager is using in running the organization, how much time they spend talking with their people about why things must get done? Companies need to identify, train and develop employees with managerial skills. To successfully manage a company, managers also need to be self-aware and be able to build teams, crate global management and marketing practices, and interact and manage employees from diverse cultural backgrounds. Noe (2005: 10) believes that effective managers are important because they help retain employees as one of the reasons employees leave jobs is the working condition created by managers. Saha (2006:18) describe persons management style as a typical pattern of behaviour she shows in carrying out a management role over a period of time. Management styles are the ways in which a manager deals with the employees or subordinates. Cronje et al. (2000: 152) believe that leadership and its models are driven by the assumption that certain personality traits and behaviour patterns are crucial to a leaders success. Jones et al (2009: 497) believes that a managers personal leadership style shapes the way that manger approaches planning, organizing and controlling. There are different styles to leadership and management that are based on different assumptions and theories. The styles used are based on a combination of the managers beliefs and preferences as well as the culture and norms of the organization. Following are leadership styles as described by Jones et al. (2009: 497-500), Cronje et al. (2000: 152-) and Anonymous. (2010: 1-2) [online]: Participatory/Democratic leadership Style In a participatory management style the worker can make a contribution to the design of their own work. Managers who practice this engage in certain types of behaviour. Employees are encouraged to be part of the decision making process. To engage the workers, they establish and communicate the purpose and direction of the organization. This help in developing a shared vision of what the organization should be. The managers role therefore is that of a leader. By her actions and words, she shows the way to her employees. She is also a coach, evaluating the results of her peoples efforts and helping them use the results to improve their processes. In this regard, decision taking takes time and thus the organization cannot afford to make mistakes. Autocratic leadership Style The premise of the autocratic management style is the belief that in most cases, the worker cannot make a contribution to their own work, and that even if they could, they would not. This goes with the classical approach. The manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. He does not consult employees, not are they allowed to give any input. Subordinates are expected to obey orders without any explanations. Bureaucratic leadership style Gaddini believed that lack of personal contact between different arms of an organization has reduced peoples understanding of important regional, national and cultural differences. Therefore, as a result, most non-value-added activities are caused by poor communication skills and bad decision making. Managers need to take responsibility for the people who work for them, rather than simply managing the tasks the people perform. In conclusion, there is no one good method as the leadership style followed will also depend on the mangers personal background, the subordinates background and the companys traditions The leadership will thus no longer focus on power but on achievement. Evaluate this statement by examining the sources of leader power and discuss whether such a leadership style can be explained in terms of any leadership model (theory). (20) There are many ways to understand how leadership works in an organization. From the different views available, there seems no single or simple answer to which leadership style is best. Some leadership perspectives are currently more popular than others; however, each helps us to understand this complex issue. We will look at the five sources of leader power and discuss whether such a leadership style can be explained in terms of any leadership theory. Leaders influence others because of the power they possess. Cronje, Du Toit and Motlatla (2000: 151). Defined power defined as a measure of a persons ability to control the environment around them, including the behaviour of other persons According to Luthans (2005: 558) in achievement-oriented leadership, the leader sets challenging goals for subordinates and shows confidence that they will achieve these goals and perform well. The five sources of leader power are legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, referent power and expert power. Effective leaders take steps to ensure that they have sufficient levels of each type of power and they use the power they have in beneficial ways (Jones et al., 2009: 500) Legitimate power According to Jones et al (2009: 500) this is the authority that a manager has by virtue of her position in an organizations hierarchy. The leader has the right or the authority to tell others what to do and employees are obligated to obey. According Cronje et al (2000: 151) legitimate power refers to the authority granted in a business to a particular position. Accordingly, a manager has the right to dismiss employees if they fail to comply. However, even though managers may possess legitimate power, this in itself does not necessarily make them good leaders. Power of Reward The power of reward relies on the promise of or the ability to deliver a reward in return for desired behaviour. This is also regarded as the power to give or withhold rewards (Jones et al., 2009: 501). Such rewards are for example, salary raises, bonuses and recognition. Effective managers use their reward power in such a way that subordinates feel that their reward signals that they are doing a good job and their efforts are appreciated. Ineffective managers on the other hand use rewards in a more controlling manner that signals that the manager has the upper hand. Coercive power Coercive power is the power that comes from a persons authority to punish (Jones et al., 2009:501). From the viewpoint of followers, its one of the most obvious types of power a leader has. This is the power to enforce compliance through fear, whether psychological, emotional or physical. Robbers often make use of such power through physical force or violence. In this regard, physical force is not a consideration in modern business, but psychological or emotional fear of being retrenched, or of social exclusion from a group, constitutes forms of power that may be exercised by managers to put pressure on employees. Jones et al. (2009: 501) believes that ineffective managers tend to rely heavily on this power and sometimes get them fired. Referent power Jones et al. (2009: 503) believes that Referent power is that that comes from subordinates and co-workers respect, admiration and loyalty. Subordinates obey leaders simply because they like or respect them, and identify with them. In other words, the leaders personal characteristics make them attractive to others as some even get to know their subordinates and showing interest in them. Expert power Jones et al. (2009: 501) believes that this power is based on the knowledge the leader possess. Their power gives them influence over subordinates. This is derived from expertise, knowledge and professional ability. A manager who commands all five kinds of power is a strong leader. But it is not only managers, or leaders who possess power, employees possess it occasionally too. For instance when a manager is dependent on subordinates for information, they are needed for their cooperation. Managers should therefore understand that their subordinates also possess power, and that they should use their own power with care, and only to the extent necessary to achieve their objectives. Effective managers will use their power in such a way as to maintain a healthy balance between their own power and that of subordinates. There are different approaches The following leadership theories have been looked at to establish whether the styles discussed above can be explained to any of the theories. Trait Theory The trait theory is described by Jones et al. (2009: 504) as one that describes personal characteristics or traits that contribute to effective leadership. Managers who possess these traits are regarded as not effective leaders and some managers who do not possess all the traits are nevertheless effective leaders. A manager under this theory will be exercising the expert power. Traits here would be knowledge and expertise. There seem to be many studies on leadership traits but they only agree in general qualities needed for be a leader. Behaviour Theory This theory described two kinds of behaviour that most leaders engage in, consideration and initiating structure (Jones et al., (2009: 505-506). For consideration, the behaviour indicates that a manager trusts, respects and cares about the subordinate therefore, the referent and reward power. For initiating structure, subordinates perform their jobs as expected of them and adhere to rules and regulations. A manager under this theory will be using the legitimate power. Contingency Theory This theory takes into account the complexity surrounding leadership and the role of the situation in determining whether a manager is an effective or ineffective leader. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in situations that are moderately favourable for leading and will be using the referent power. They develop good relationships with their subordinates and want to be liked by them. Task-oriented leaders are most effective in situations that are very favourable or very unfavourable for leading (Jones et al. (2009: 507-508). Task-oriented leaders will be using the legitimate and coercive powers. They want subordinates to perform at a high level and focus on task accomplishments. Path Goal Theory This theory describes how effective managers motivate their subordinates by determining what outcomes their subordinates want, rewarding subordinates with these outcomes when they achieve their goals and perform at a high level, and clarifying the paths to goal attainment. Managers can engage in four different kinds of behaviours to motivate subordinates: directive behaviours, supportive behaviours, participative behaviours and achievement oriented behaviours (Jones et al. (2009: 510-511). This theory can be used by the leader in different situations. Luthans (2005: 558-559) believes that using one of the four factors stated above, the leader attempts to influence subordinates perceptions and motivate them, which in turn leads to their role clarity, goal expectancies, satisfaction and performance. By doing that the leader attempts to make the path to subordinates goal smooth. The conclusion therefore is that the Path Goal Theory is perceived as the most favourable theory by subordinates as it exerts most influence over them when they behave in ways that closely match their needs and values and requirements of a specific work situation. A flattening of the hierarchy suggests the need to review the organizational structure. With reference to this, identify the factors that influence the choice of an organizational structure. (12) Organizing can be effectively carried out only if the organizational structure has been developed to optimize the execution of strategies and plans. In other words, plans can be successfully implemented only if the organizational structure makes this possible. (Cronje et al. 2000:152). Before identifying the factors that influence the choice of an organizational structure we defined what that is. According to Jones et al. (2009: 346) an organizational structure is a formal system of task and reporting relationship that coordinates and motivates organizational members so that they work together to achieve organizational goals. Jones et al. (2009: 656-659) and Cronje et al. (2000:152) identified the following four factors: The Organizational Environment The environment in which a business operates should be taken as a basis for designing an organizational structure, The more quickly the external environment is changing within it, the greater the problems facing managers in trying to gain access to scarce resources. Managers have to make organizing choices that result in more flexible structures and entrepreneurial cultures. This means they have to decentralize authority, empower lower-level employees to make important operating decisions and encourage values and norms that emphasize change and innovation. If the external environment is stable, resources are readily available and uncertainty is low, managers must make organizing choices that bring more stability or formality to the organizational structure and establish values and norms that emphasize obedience and team players. Less coordination and communication takes place among people and functions to obtain resources. The organizational climate therefore play an important part i n organizational design. The type of structure that leads to the successful implementation of tasks depends on the culture of the business. The structure of a business with a formal culture will differ from one with more informal cultures. Strategy The close relationship between the strategy of a business and the organizational structure, or the infrastructure to implement the strategy is very important. Ehlers et al. (2007: 247) believes that a change in the organizations environment often triggers a change in strategy so that continued success and wealth maximization for all the organizations stakeholders can be sustained. It is therefore important that the organizational structure remains aligned with the strategy at all times. Human Resources There is also a close relationship between an organizational structure and the competence and role of staff. Structure influences both the choice of strategy and the preferences as to how things should be done. Most managers have a personal preference for a particular organizational structure, for the type of relations with subordinates and attitudes to formality and authority. However, they should also pay attention to the needs of the workforce and to the complexity and kind of work employees perform. In this regard, the tendency is to move away from the strictly formal bureaucratic structure and have a flexible structure that is characterized by decentralized authority and empowering employees. Technology Jones et al. (2009: 347) states that technology is the combination of skills, knowledge, machines, and computers that are sued to design, make , and distribute goods and services. As a result, the more complicated the technology that an organization uses, the more difficult it is to regulate or control it because more unexpected event can come up. The more complicated the technology become, the greater the need for a flexible structure and progressive culture to enhance the managers ability to respond to unexpected situations increase. However, the more routine the technology, the more appropriate is a formal structure, because tasks are simple and the steps needed to produce goods and services have been worked out in advance. The size of the business It is equally obvious that the structure also depends on the number of employees and managers to be coordinated. An increase in the size of the business also creates a need for greater specialization, more departments and more levels of management (Cronje et al., 2000: 152. In this regard, Mabey, Salaman and Storey (2005:247) believe that larger organizations would have more complex and formal structure. Nonetheless, even size is not a determining factor: some large organizations have managed to create informal arrangements while some smaller organizations have created more formal systems. Planning, leading and control are facilitated if management has an effective and dynamic organizational structure. Organizing is carried out amid many factors, each of which may provide input in the designing of the organizational structure. Some experts believe that the environment in which a business operates is a decisive factor. Others emphasize the connection between strategy and structure. The size and complexity of the business, the competence of its employees, organizational climate or corporate culture should not be ignored in designing the structure and informing departments and distributing tasks. Whatever is designed should be adaptable to changes in the business environment. With reference to the term devolution of power and authority, explain the need to decentralize authority. (8) Jones et al. (2009: 366) believes that decentralizing authority is giving lower-level managers and non managerial employees the right to make important decisions about how to use organizational resources. When leaders empower their subordinates, they take over some of the responsibilities and authority that used to reside with the leader such as the right to check ones own work and also take decisions that their leaders or supervisors use to make (Jones et al., 2009: 503) Decentralization of authority is need as employees at each level have different but related responsibilities for utilizing organizational resources to increase efficiency and effectiveness (Jones et al., 2009: 15-16). In order to understand decentralization of authority, one needs to understand the management processes and levels and managements. We looked at the levels of leadership as tabulated by Pearce and Robinson (2007: 372) hereunder. When the need for decentralization occurs, the size of the organization should be considered and the geographical location of its branches. If the organization is large and branches are located far from each other, then decentralization of authority should be considered. This will not only speed up the decision-making process and adapt to the local conditions, but importantly empower the employees. With the demarcation of Namibia into thirteen regions, the government has been trying to decentralize some of the authority to the Governors in the various regions. The process has been slow and although people welcomed the idea of allowing the Governors to take decisions based on the needs in their regions, they still feel that they do not all the authority they need. Due to that delays occurs in particular the recruitment processes. It is all still being done at a central place. Attracting resources and capabilities and developing the business RENEWAL PROCESS Developing operating managers and supporting their activities; maintaining organizational trust Providing institutional leadership through shaping and embedding corporate purpose and challenging embedded assumptions Managing operational interdependencies and personal networks INTEGRATION PROCESS Linking skills, knowledge, and resources across units; reconciling short-term performance and long-term ambition Creating corporate direction. Developing and nurturing organizational values Creating and pursuing opportunities; managing continuous performance improvement ENTREPRENEURIAL PROCESS Reviewing, developing, and supporting initiatives Establishing performances standards Front-Line Management Middle Management top Management Table 2: Management Processes and Levels of Management (Pearce et al., 2007: 372) Leadership is about coping with change. Discuss the relationship between organizational control and change, and explain why the management of change is a vital task. (20) The first question here is to discuss the relationship between organizational control and change. In order to that, we first look at the definitions. Organizational control is defined by Jones et al. (384) as the process whereby managers monitor and regulate how efficiently and effectively an organization and its members are performing the activities necessary to achieve organizational goals. Organizational changes on the other hand is defined as the movement of an organization away from its present state and towards some desired future state to increase its efficiency and effectiveness (Jones et al., 2009: 384). The relationship between organizational control and change is that there need to be balance between control which is the need to improve operations and change which is the need to respond to new events. Managers therefore must balance the need for an organization to improve the way it currently operates and the need for it to change in response to new unanticipated events as illustrated in figure 1 (Jones et al., 2009: 408). The second part of the question required an explanation as to why management of change is a vital task. Jones et al (2009:409) states that management of change is vital as there exist a need to constantly search for ways to improve efficiency and effectiveness. Managers have to develop the skills necessary like, political skills, analytical skills, people skills, system skill and business skills to manage change effectively. It is also vital for managers when managing change to follow the following steps as discussed by Jones et al (2009: 410-413). Assessing the need for change Deciding how to change an organization is a difficult task because change disrupts the status quo and poses a threat, prompting employees to resist attempts to alter work relationships and procedures. Assessing the need for change calls for two important activities that is recognizing that there is a problem and identifying its source. During the first step in the change process, managers need to recognize that there is a problem that requires change. Managers need to look at performance measures such as falling market share or profits, rising costs, or employees failure to meet their established goals or stay within budgets which indicate whether change is needed. Too identify the source of the problem, managers need to look both inside and outside the organization. Externally, they must examine how changes in environmental forces may be crating opportunities and threats that are affecting internal work relationships. Managers also need to look within the organization to see whether its structure is causing problems between departments. Need to respond to new events Need to improve operationsManagers must balance the need for an organization to improve the way it currently operates and the need for it to change in response to new unanticipated events. Figure 1: Organizational Control and Change (Jones et al., 2009: 408) Deciding on the change to make Once the source of the problem has been identified, managers must now decide what the organizations future would be and plan how they are going to attain that. Managers must also identify the obstacles of resistance and analyze these obstacles which can be at corporate, divisional, departmental and or individual level. It is important for managers to invite employees to participate in the planning for change as it will help overcome resistance and allay employees fears. Managers can also overcome resistance by emphasizing group or shared goals such as increased organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Implementing the change It is generally accepted that management introduce change from top down as they are the ones who identified the need for change, decided what to do and thus move quickly to implement the changes throughout the organization. With this approach, the emphasis is on making the changes quickly and dealing with problems as they arise, which is regarded as revolutionary in nature. This approach has the benefit of providing clear, sustained direction which is well resourced and coordinated, however, it also runs the risk of not being owned by a number of staff and may lead to some distrust. The bottom-up approach is regarded more gradual or evolutionary. Consultation takes place with middle and first-line managers about the need for change and develops a plan. The advantage of this approach is that it minimized uncertainty and resistance as employees participate and are kept informed of what is going on. Evaluating the change Managers need to evaluate how successful the change effort has been in improving organizational performance using measures such as changes in market share, benchmarks and profits. They also need to compare how well an organization is performing after the change with how well it was performing before. Finally, organizational control and change are closely linked because organizations operate in environments that are constantly changing and so mangers must be alert to the need to change their strategies and structures. With reference to the words the opening of existing communication channels and the recreation of new one Describe the communication process and outline the barriers to effective communication in the workplace. (15) Communication is the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding. Good communication matters because business organizations are made up of people (Jones et al. (2009: 567). Communication process consist of two phases: the transmission phase where information is shared between two or more individuals or groups and the feedback phase where understanding is ensured. In both phases, a number of distinct stages must occur for communication to take place. (Jones et al., 2009: 569-570) (See figure 2). In the transmission phase, the sender who is the person or group wishing to share information with another person or group, decides on the message, what information to communicate. The sender then translates the message into symbols or language, a process called encoding. Noise is a general term that refers to anything that hampers any stage of the communication process. Once encoded, the message is transmitted through a medium to the receiver, who is the person or group for which the message is intended. A medium is just the pathway through which an encoded message is transmitted to the receiver. The receiver then interprets and tries to make sense of the message through a process called decoding. The feedback phase will then be initiated by the receiver, who now becomes the sender. The receiver decides what message to send to the original sender (who now is the receiver), encodes it, and transmits it through a chosen medium. The original sender determines that a common understanding has been reached, sender and receiver cycle through the whole process as many times as needed to reach a common understanding. Feedback eliminates misunderstandings, ensures that messages are correctly interpreted, and enables senders and receives to reach a common understanding. The encoding of messages into words, written or spoken, is verb